The present invention relates to the transformation of available energy resulting ultimately from nuclear reactions into free enthalpy of mestastable chemical compounds. Energy which can be made available will hereinafter be called exergy. Specifically, exergy is that portion of energy or heat which can (potentially) be extracted and used in any form of work. Exergy is, therefore, defined under observation of the second law of thermodynamics. The residual energy is called anergy. Exergy is in any instance dependant upon the environmental temperature. Exergy can be latent if stored in a chemical compound and made available by a chemical reaction.
This invention is an attempt to find a solution to the following problem: is it possible to continue operation of all technical power producing and heat generating systems, and to increase such systems with a supply of such available energy, i.e. exergy, that is independant from consumption of the terrestrial stock of chemical (fossil) and nuclear fuels and does not require depositing of useless or even dangerous reaction products.
Technical systems, therefore, have to be designed in analogy to botanical organism, which are able to absorb exergy radiated from sun and to store it in matter as its carrier. The storage of exergy should be carried out under development of functions similar to those performed by ATP (adenosine-tri-phosphate) in all living organisms. Following, therefore, the biological model a steady state of dynamic equilibrium between the exergy consuming technical systems, on the one hand, and their supply systems transforming available energy from the sun should be reached and, must be reached, to obtain a steady state in regard to production and technically useful consumption of the material carrier. Specifically here, the same quantities of carriers should discharge their exergy in technical power and heating systems on the average, as are being recharged by the transformation of solar exergy. Moreover, the storage and discharge of exergy by and for all technical power producing and heat generating systems should not interfere with the various biological cycles or disturb the steady states of all organisms. In other words, the production and consumption of technical energy carriers should coexist with the biosphere. Most present day fuels do not.
The reasons for the energy crisis of technical systems, their consequences in the long range as well as the possibilities to overcome the crisis will be explained in the following. At first I proceed to present an introduction into the energetic principles of biological organisms. Thereafter I shall describe the dependance of evolutionary development from exergy supply, followed by considerations which lead to this invention.
To secure life, evolution and reproduction of any organism, two conditions in regard to its ambience have to be fulfilled: First, the ambience has to contain the materials necessary to compose the organism's structure, to repair and to reproduce it; second, the ambience has to provide the work which enables the organism both to compose, repair and reproduce its structure as well as to overcome external mechanical or chemical forces.
Both conditions are met in the case of zoological organisms, such as men and animals, in the way, that these organisms do not receive and take up work proper from their ambience but withdraw energy therefrom which is stored as exergy as a potential source for work performed by and in the organism. Exergy is transferred to the respective organism in the form of free enthalpy of chemical compounds which are used to be food. Food has essentially two functions. In accordance with one function, it serves as the material carrier of exergy, the other function is that it serves as raw material for regeneration of the structure. On the other hand, and just as one example, warm blooded organisms loose heat to the usually cooler environment and, by this exergy. Animals and man however receive energy by way of non-material carriers (i.e. radiation) only to a neglible extent. In terms of thermodynamics, any organism which can receive (or loose) exergy on nonmaterial energy carriers as well as on material carriers is, an open system.
In contrast to open systems such as man or animals, their living space, the earth, is not an open system. The transfer of matter between earth and the outer space is negligibly small; exergy, therefore, will be transferred to earth due to lack of material carriers practically exclusively on non-material energetic carriers, which are electro-magnetic fields, emitted by the sun in the form of radiation. A certain equilibrium exists here as to radiation from the earth and storage of such radiation in the form of latent energy.
It is a problem of primary importance how the zoological organisms being open systems as defined can actually exist on and coexist with earth (i.e. within a closed system) for a very long period of time, independant from any open ended source for a material carrier (matter) of exergy. This problem has been solved by nature through the existence of a second category of open systems known as plants. Plants being botanical organisms can transfer exergy from a non-material energetic carrier, to matter as carrier; they do store solar radiation (or exergy of the electro-magnetical field) in form of free enthalphy of chemical compounds by photosynthesis, mostly using atoms of C (carbon), of O (oxygen) and of H (hydrogen), which they withdraw from air and water to complete this basic cycle within the biosphere.
This exergy storage is possible only due to the fact, that hydro-carbons synthesized are metastable in regard to O.sub.2 ; exergy has to be provided to initiate their reactions. Open system requirements of zoological organisms can be satisfied, if in fact, exergy is continuously transferred by radiation from the outside, i.e., the sun. The zoological and botanical organisms can coexist under these conditions if for an unlimited period of time, a stationary state is being maintained and kept constant. It has to be observed however, that the internal exergy consumption typical for all organisms (as an example, to organize metabolism) reduces the amount of exergy which can be used under optimal conditions to feed men and animals, because plants have their own exergy requirements which are consumed irreversibly and cannot be recaptured.
While the exergy radiated from sun will be lost gradually during the numerous transformations -- thus causing the one-way dependence of men and animals from plants -- matter cannot be lost. It is the matter as carrier of exergy, not the exergy itself, which determines the steady stationary state of coexistence in form of a dynamic equilibrium. In such a case only so many CO.sub.2 -- and H.sub.2 O-- molecules can be charged per unit time with exergy, serving as building blocks for hydrocarbons as well as for the generation of O.sub.2, as are discharged from exergy by reacting under formation of CO.sub.2 and H.sub.2 O caused e.g. by men, animals or other causes.
The stationary state in the coexistence and interaction of zoological and botanical organisms is related to the biosphere as a whole; this state does not include a dynamic equilibrium between individual organisms and its environment. It is, indeed, in general, a non-equilibrium which can be found normally amongst the different biological organisms. Consequently, each organism has a need to participate optimally on the limited exergy supply. As was stated above, individual organisms are open systems and a condition of equilibrium between an organism by itself and its environment cannot be expected to occur but the organism is more or less actively engaged in establishing or maintaining an approach to a dynamic equilibrium with its environment, resulting in a state of coexistence among the species and participants of the biosphere as a whole. On the other hand, this condition of non-equilibrium is the driving force of evolution. Evolution, therefore, is at least to some extent, the result of the fact that the state within the biosphere is not truely stationary, but, so to speak, quasi-stationary only, and coexistence is true only temporarily.
Evolution can be characterized by the rise of organisms that have an increasingly complex (i.e., more adaptable) structure. There are two limiting possibilities for evolution development. The phylogenetic evolution means the reproduction of a structure in a slightly modified and (at least) better form caused by changes in pattern. By this method do not the individuals but species or races evolve from generation to generation. In case of ontogenetic evolution the pattern of structure, but not its (natural) disorder remains unchanged. Any progress is now determined by the individual; for the individual is able (in principle) to pass through a large number of stages of development during his life. Mostly humans (less animals) are involved in the ontogenetic development; that part of their structure, which might be changed in the direction of higher degress of order and complexity is located mainly in the brain.
Two different phases of human development are to be recognized the first ending at the middle of 18. century. During this phase mankind constituted a subgroup of zoological organisms within the biosphere; human existence was limited in general by all the factors given by the requirements to coexist with botanical and zoological organisms. Decisive here was that the attempts of humans to exist, did not disturb noticeably the coexistence between the human race and the biosphere, nor did it disturb the coexistence among other species of the biosphere. In the second phase, however, a small group of human individuals was able to overcome some of these limitations in countries which lead up to what became known as the industrial revolution and created what can be called the techno-sphere. This group succeeded not only by improving the heat producing systems known so far, but has been able to develop technical power systems based on fossil fuels. Use of these fuels multiplies the forces available to humans by many orders of magnitudes, but the use of these fuels and this discharge of exergy carriers which have discharged their exergy for the benefit of the techno-sphere has begun to interfere with the biosphere.
There are two consequences essentially: On the one hand a very small group of humans started to accelerate its own evolutionary development (mostly on technologicaleconomical areas) in a way not known before. The non-equilibrium in regard to other groups and inbetween this group resulted in world-wide conflicts. On the other hand, the quasi-stationary state of coexistence of the biological organisms has been discontinued, not only as between the man made techno-sphere and the biosphere, but also among other members of the biosphere, including the human race as a member of that biosphere.
The technical power systems so far developed are designed to consume exergy stored in matter as carrier. The supply of these systems seems to be organized, therefore, in analogy to zoological organisms. While, however, the zoological systems coexisted in a stationary state with the botanical systems, this situation does not hold true for the technical systems. Today the technical systems consume at about 95% exergy of fossil fuels, which is exergy stored from botanical organisms in form of hydrocarbons and O.sub.2 ; the technical systems are fed with this exergy from sources of supply, which have been accumulated during some millions of years. As a consequence, this kind of exergy supply is limited in time necessarily.
The totality of botanical organisms needs and receives a solar exergy flux for the production of hydrocarbons and O.sub.2 of about 40.10.sup.12 W. Compared to this, the technical systems consume today (1974) an exergy flux of about 6.10.sup.12 W. If, however, the entire world population of about 4.10.sup.9 individuals were to consume in the average, the same amount of exergy of about 10 kW consumed per capita in the U.S., technical and botanical systems would have the same demand for exergy. Considering the rise in population, increasing industrialization etc., this may occur in the near future. In this case, and, due to the low efficiency of photosynthesis of about 10%, ten times more of CO.sub.2 -- and H.sub.2 O-molecules will be released than plants can reconstruct into hydrocarbons and O.sub.2. Thus, the steady state in regard to exergy carriers has been destroyed, and the discharge exergy carriers, CO.sub.2 and H.sub.2 O accumulate in the atmosphere and elsewhere.
The supply of fossil fuels, such as coal, oil and natural gas are estimated to be about 200.multidot.10.sup.21 Ws (or approximately 200 Q). This quantity is enough to cover a continuous demand of 40.multidot.10.sup.12 W fora period of time of 5.multidot.10.sup.9 s, equivalent to about 158 years. If, however, mankind increases up to about 15.multidot.10.sup.9 individuals by the year 2050 (as indicated by reasonable extrapolation), and if, in addition only half of the fuel can be made available for actual consumption, then the time period will be reduced from 158 to 21 years!!
In order to continue human evolution with the assistance of technical heating, power and other work producing systems, as well as information systems, the dynamic equilibrium in the biosphere has to be restored and the exergy supply of technical systems must be ensured on a longterm basis but in an entirely different manner.
Nuclear carriers of exergy such as uranium, plutonium and deuterium, cannot be used to reach both targets. The deuterium available within the closed system earth is inexhaustible if compared to uranium; the problem, however, is that all discharged carriers (and their by-products) such as tritium as well as the fission products of uranium and plutonium have to be stored, because they cannot be recharged (with is the principle difference between carriers of chemical and nuclear energy). The accumulation of these highly radioactive and long-lived materials is accompanied with an increasing probability for radioactive contamination of the biosphere with the result of a deadly interruption of all steady states.
The only solution for this problem seems to lie in a technical system for exergy supply, which is designed in accordance with the principles of botanical organisms and can coexist with the biosphere! solar exergy must be stored on a material carrier which can be used as universal technical fuel and which in turn can be recharged following use without interferring the biological steady state. Even a population of 15.multidot.10.sup.9 individuals consuming 10kW per capita will claim only a very small fraction of the solar exergy flux of about 173 10.sup.15 W. A solar based technical exergy supply system following the rules mentioned above is the object of this invention.
The present day exergy utilization in the technosphere should be considered in some detail. Presently, the zoological organisms as well as the technical power and heating systems are both fed with exergy transferred almost exclusively by means of materials carriers, and their internal organization is developed to make available the exergy to the various organs and subsystems respectively; these are the consumers of the exergy. Both the zoological as well as the technical systems have developed two identical principles for this work; on the one side exergy, which is stored on a material carrier, will be distributed and made available for consumption by the consumers wherever required; on the other side, exergy is made available and transmitted in form of electrical energy ready for immediate consumption along conduction paths. A material carrier of exergy is (in some respect) like a storage facility, whenever work has to be performed the storage facility must be tapped. As an example, a hydrocarbon of higher degree is an exergonic chemical compound, which appears to be metastable in regard to O.sub.2 under normal conditions. However, work for obtaining the discharge of the stored exergy of such a carrier has to be exerted and even te accumulated in many cases until a trigger level has been reached, which is equivalent to the exertion of activation exergy to overcome the metastable threshold and being necessary also to increase the capacity for the reaction. In the presence of a catalyst the activation exergy is diminished.
Electro-magnetic fields are used as non-material, energy carriers in both biological and technical systems. These carriers transmit exergy in technical systems at low frequencies, guided by metallic conductors available for immediate consumption at any place without any activation. There is a trade off here between the limited possibilities for storage of exergy of electromagnetic fields and the immediate availibility of field exergy; the access time for exergy stored in a non-material energetic carrier is essentially zero.
At the present stage of development the technical power and heating systems are fed with different hydrocarbons, which have almost the same specific exergy, but which differ in regard to phases (solid, liquid, gaseous). Also, the activation exergy differs in dependance upon the H.sub.2 -content. Coal has the lowest H.sub.2 -content, less than 7.5% and, therefore, requires the highest activation exergy. Oil, which is a liquid with a H.sub.2 -content of about 15% exceeds natural gas with a H.sub.2 -content of 33% in regard to the activation exergy. About one-third each of all technical systems use coal, oil and gas respectively (Example: USA 1970).
Thermal activation is the only possibility known so far to make available this exergy in a technical scale; the stationary combustion of fossil fuels requires about 35% of their exergy stored for activation. This means that activation cannot be performed without accumulation of external exergy. Coal requires, therefore, the longest ignition period, while natural gas has the smallest period and its exergy is available rather immediately.
In highly developed countries, about one-third of the material carriers of exergy will be discharged in power stations. Specifically, about 35% of the exergy stored and transported in some fashion to the power station will be consumed for the thermal activation of carriers, and an additional 35% will be used in the subsequent transformation into electrical energy; the (so-called thermal) efficiency of power stations, therefore, will not exceed much about 30%. As a consequence, about 10% of the total energy transmitted to all the technical power and heating systems will be available directly in the form of electrical exergy in a distribution network however, only about 43% of this energy, arriving at the consumer, are actually available for the various nonelectrical consumers.
The cost for the transport of electrical energy and of gaseous, liquid and solid hydrocarbons are estimated to follow the ratio 20 : 5 : 1 : 10, while the capacities of the usual transportation devices in accordance are related as 1 : 25 : 500 : 1. Both, the medium activation exergy and the extremely high amenability of liquid exergy carrier to transportation, when compared to the others, have greatly influenced the evolution of technical power and heating systems predominantly towards liquid exergy carriers : The world-wide shift in regard to these systems from solid to liquid exergy carriers (partially to gaseous carriers) as universal fuels cannot be reversed. This however, has produced a direct and increasing dependance from oil, but oil constitutes only about 5% of the supply of fossil fuels. Consequently one must analyze proposals to replace oil by other liquids, which aspect is the principle concern underlying this invention.
Since the coexistence of the techno-sphere and of the biosphere must be regarded as an absolute prerequisite for the continuation of both spheres, it is reasonable and appropriate to match the former to the latter. Thus, it is worthwhile to note the fact, that all living organisms have developed the identical organization to distribute and make available the exergy which has been received even though they developed along very different lines of evolution. The principle of this organization is apparently optimal and further development may not be necessary or even possible. This principle can be characterized (as far as known today) by the following rules:
1. Higher hydrocarbons are used both to store exergy on a long-term basis and to transfer exergy from the botanical to the zoological organisms.
2. ATP (adenosine-tri-phosphate) is the carrier which is being used exclusively within all living organisms for both storing exergy on short-term basis, and for distributing it internally.
3. Exergy of hydrocarbons and of ATP will be released in form of electrical energy; in the reverse, hydrocarbons, ATP and other carriers when used to perform non-electrical work are synthesized by means of electrical energy. The blocking of the first (exergonic) process is overcome by special catalysts.
The transformation of solar exergy in botanical systems and (indirectly) in zoological systems as well as the coupling between both kinds of systems with the help of hydrocarbons can be explained by these rules as follows:
ATP plays the decisive role by being the universal fuel transported in liquid phase within all organisms. The exergy of ATP will be transformed reversibly and directly into electrical energy (which appears to be one of the long-term targets of development of technical systems, realized in a first step by fuel-cells). The exergy stored in ATP is also being used to perform mechanical work in muscles or chemical work by "pumping" ions in the cells of the nervous systems.
Hydrocarbons, however, not ATP do couple the zoological to the botanical organisms in regard to exergy transfer due to the fact, that the atmosphere has to be used for recycling of all discharged carriers in nature! The reaction-products of ATP, however, which are ADP (adenosine-di-phosphate) and P (free phosphate) cannot exist within an ambience containing gaseous O.sub.2 in contrast to CO.sub.2 and H.sub.2 O which are indifferent. The external exergy carriers for biological organisms are at the same time the raw material for the construction of the organisms structure; it seems to be necessary, therefore, to offer a broad spectrum of different hydrocarbons.